Here he is doing philosophy, not science: whatever else it is, the Critique of Pure Reason is a philosophical work. To go back to something that I was saying earlier, originally a lot of the material in the Groundwork was meant to be in the Critique. How was it that a book that was originally supposed to be fundamentally about ethics ended up being the Critique of Pure Reason?
But he was also well aware that recent advances in science, in particular the success of Newtonian mechanics, looked as if it was posing a threat to the very idea of ethics. It was looking increasingly as though everything that happens in the world could be explained as the result of inexorable causal laws.
The popular view that more and more people were beginning to take seriously was that the world basically consisted of a lot of tiny billiard balls knocking into each other in such a way that, in principle, you could predict with absolute certainty everything that was going to happen. Kant took that picture very seriously. The very idea of a distinction between right and wrong looks as if it is under threat as well. He somehow needed to be able to reconcile his commitment to Newtonian science, and to the principle that every event has a cause, with his equally ardent commitment to the possibility of free will.
How is free will possible in a phenomenal world that is all about cause and effect? He goes back to the idea that there is a fundamental distinction between appearance and reality, between the phenomenal and the noumenal. Everything is completely causally determined in the phenomenal world. So how can there be freedom in the phenomenal world?
There really is no room for freedom in the phenomenal world. Complete causal determination does indeed rule out freedom, says Kant. How then does he square the circle? The answer is: by appeal to the distinction between appearance and reality. Our freedom is a feature of how we are in ourselves. This is something that works at the level of reality, rather than at the level of appearance—although it does mean that, just as in the case of the existence of God, strictly speaking we have to regard our belief in our own freedom as an article of faith.
We hope we are because without freedom nothing in our lives seems to make sense. Much of the Groundwork is concerned with developing the idea of what he calls the categorical imperative. The Groundwork is divided into three chapters. One thing that I think is important to appreciate is that he takes himself to be preaching to the converted.
He thinks people already know perfectly well how to distinguish between right and wrong. People already have a sense of the distinction between right and wrong.
What he can do, as a philosopher, is take this basic knowledge that people already have and systematise it. So, he draws a distinction between categorical imperatives and hypothetical imperatives.
Both you and your friend are thoroughly into this game and getting a lot of pleasure from your activity. When I said you should take tennis lessons, it was all based on the assumption that you would be interested in improving your game.
I can turn around to you and say, well, you should be. There are certain things that we should simply do, full stop, irrespective of our aims and aspirations. So, the lying example is a classic example. If it were well known that you could get away with lying in certain circumstances, after a while communication itself would just break down. Not in the Groundwork but elsewhere he famously bit the bullet and said that if an axe-man came to the door looking for your friend and asked whether the friend was in the house, if the friend actually was in the house then you had a duty to tell the truth.
He did bite the bullet. What characterises it is its uncompromising nature: what you must do, you must do. Full stop. Kant is the arch-opponent of that view. For Kant, the ends never justify the means; the means are themselves what really matter.
The Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals is quite a short book. I now want to consider another book that Kant wrote. In English, the title is translated in different ways. There is so much going on in this book that I cannot even begin to do justice to it now. He also considers questions of scientific methodology and looks at how our conception of teleology is relevant to the way in which we pursue science.
He covers a vast amount of territory. But, on the other hand, we also, of course, ordinarily think of ourselves as creatures within the world of space and time. Read 45 reviews from the world's largest community for readers.
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